Hypothesis on MATTER

    At present, there is no single theory that encompasses all aspects of matter and its actions. Great many (seemingly unrelated) theories, when taken together, appear to contradict themselves unless imaginary particles and/or illogical assumptions are introduced. Actions at a distance and different types of forces are the worst examples.

    In this concept, an elementary matter particle (similar to strings) that has positive existence, definite structure and properties is postulated. An alternative concept, based on these particles, can logically explain all aspects about matter bodies, starting from elementary particle to the composite universe. No other assumptions or imaginary particles are used. Many conclusions in the concept are contrary to present beliefs. There are no paradoxes or mysteries. I am eager to present this theory to the physicists for consideration. Since the book has very little mathematics (nothing beyond High School standard), it is also suitable for the general readers. If this theory is a viable proposition, it can simplify explanations on complicated physical activities. The proposed theory, when accepted, will redefine our understanding of nature and its physical laws.

   All aspects of matter and its apparent interactions are governed by simple mechanical actions of the postulated particles. There are no actions at a distance. Cause and effect relation is strictly followed. Topics, covered in the book, encompass most branches of physical science. Since the subjects covered in the book are too vast, in depth study on any particular topic is excluded. Instead, a common approach to explain all topics is preferred. The postulated particles, quanta of matter, by their simple mechanical interactions, cause all physical phenomena of matter, from the origin of 3D matter to gravity and subatomic interactions to cosmological events.

Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. General
1.2. Aim of this text

1.3. Scope of this text

1.4. Interaction

 

Chapter 2.  SPACE SYSTEMS AND ENERGY FIELDS

Chapter 2 lays down the foundation of the concept, explained in the book. An elementary matter particle, ‘quantum of matter’, that has positive existence in space and has definite properties is postulated. Other than for the quanta of matter and their properties, no other imaginary particles or assumed properties are used. All actions in nature are originated (ultimately) from the action of quanta of matter. All actions are results of definite causes, which precede them. No action at a distance is envisaged. Quanta of matter form latticework structures of 2D energy fields in space. Everything in the universe is created from and by the 2D energy fields. 2D energy fields are the media of all actions. 2D energy fields, in this concept, replace the all-encompassing ‘aether’ in the aether theories. Unlike the aether, the 2D energy fields have definite constituents, existence in space, structure, properties and ability to act. Due to the inherent property of 2D energy fields, to maintain their continuity and serenity, a discontinuity in the 2D energy fields causes the gravitational effects. Gravitational forces are proportional to the extent of 2D energy fields, producing the gravitational actions and they are of push nature. Gravitational actions have definite nature and limitations. Gravitational forces are ineffective on straight perimeters of matter particles. Greater gravitational forces from the outer (curved) sides of two bodies (compared to lower gravitational forces from in between them) cause apparent attraction due to gravity between the two matter particles. Free quanta of matter, within a gap in the 2D energy fields are gathered and compressed by gravitational action to create a 2D disturbance.

2.1. Fundamental dimensions:

2.2. Dimensional space systems:

2.3. Quantum of matter:

      2.3.1. Basic Postulation:

      2.3.2. Nature of quanta of matter:

                   Interaction between two quanta in contact:

      2.3.3. Formation of junctions:

      2.3.4. Co-existence of quanta of matter:

      2.3.5. Properties of quanta of matter:

2.4. Formation of 2D energy field:

      2.4.1. 2D energy field:

      2.4.2. Reactive force:

      2.4.3. Production of a disturbance:

      2.4.4. Origin of field force:

2.5. Equilibrium of a 2D energy field:

2.6. Work and force:

      2.6.1. Transmission of distortion fields:

      2.6.2. Range of distortion field:

      2.6.3. Time and inertia:

2.7. Properties of the 2D energy fields:

2.8. Disturbance:

      2.8.1. Development of a disturbance:

      2.8.2. Magnitude of a disturbance:

2.9. Gravitational pressure:

      2.9.1. Range of gravity:

      2.9.2. Nature of gravity:

      2.9.3. Strength of gravity:

2.10. Gravity on a point disturbance:

2.11. Gravity on a disturbance:

      2.11.1. Shaping of a disturbance:

2.12. Application of gravity:

      2.12.1. Action of gravity:

      2.12.2. Motion of a particle by gravity:

      2.12.3. Pressure energy of a disturbance:

      2.12.4. Gravity on a straight perimeter:

      2.12.5. Gravity on a curved perimeter:

2.13. Attraction due to gravity:

2.14. Attraction due to gravity in 2D energy field:

      2.14.1. Effect of angle subtended:

2.15. Size reduction of a disturbance:

2.16. Contraction of a small disturbance:

Chapter 3. PHOTONS

Gravitational pressure on larger 2D disturbances converts them into real 3D matter. Photons, the corpuscles of light, are disc shaped matter bodies, moving at constant linear speeds and spinning at speeds proportional to their matter contents. Associated energy of a photon is invested in the 2D energy fields about its matter body in the form of strain in the distorted latticework. Distorted region in 2D energy fields around photon’s body is its inertial pocket. Inertial pocket contain all the work (and energy) required for the state of the photon. Photons have mass, inertia and they obey all inertial laws. They are basic building blocks of all 3D matter bodies in nature.

Inertia is a property of 2D energy fields. Time delay, caused due to latticework structure of the 2D energy field, in transferring the distortions, produce inertial properties. Actions of inertial forces, origin of inertia and time, motions of bodies under inertial forces, relativistic mass, etc. are related to the structure of 2D energy fields. Actions of forces are simple mechanical movements of quanta in the latticework structures of 2D energy fields. Strain, produced due to the distortions in the 2D energy fields is the energy stored. Characteristic properties of various types of motions are determined by the structure of 2D energy fields.

A stable photon does not interact with any other body. A change in the direction of motion of a photon destabilizes a photon. An unstable photon is stable by its matter content and unstable by its inertial pocket. Unstable photons, moving in curved paths cause the production of field forces in the 2D energy fields. Limit of the universe, for any observer, is set by the red-shift of radiations from far away sources.

3.1. Contraction of larger disturbance:

      3.1.1. Internal pressure of a disturbance:

      3.1.2. Very large disturbance:

      3.1.3. Disturbance of optimum size:

      3.1.4. Creation of matter:

      3.1.5. Creation of higher-dimensional matter:

      3.1.6. Critical radial size of a 3D disturbance:

      3.1.7. Shaping up of a 3D disturbance:

      3.1.8. Development of 3D matter:

3.2. Ejection force:

3.3. Spinning force:

3.4. Photon:

      3.4.1. Ejection and spin of a disturbance

      3.4.2. Centrifugal force in a disturbance:

      3.4.3. Photon:

      3.4.4. Motion of a photon:

      3.4.5. Shape of a photon:

      3.4.6. Concepts of a photon:

3.5. Linear speed of a photon:

3.6. Spin motion of a photon:

3.7. Spin speed of a photon:

3.8. Inertial forces:

      3.8.1. 3D matter body:

      3.8.2. Nature of forces:

      3.8.3. Steady state of a body:

      3.8.4. Interactions between 3D bodies:

      3.8.5. Action of Inertial force:

      3.8.6. Inertia of a body:

      3.8.7. Equal and opposite inertial forces:

      3.8.8. Forces in the same direction:

      3.8.9. Inertial motion:

      3.8.10. Inertia of rotary motion:

     

      3.8.11. Motion due to torque:

                       Action of a rotating force:

                       Linear motion of a rotating body:

      3.8.12. External forces at an angle to each other:

      3.8.13. Angular momentum:

      3.8.14. Effect of very large explosion:

      3.8.15. Movements of bodies:

                       Motion in linear path:

                       Motion in curved path:

                       Motion under central force:

      3.8.16. Mass of a body:

      3.8.17. Weight of a body:

      3.8.18. Velocity and acceleration:

      3.8.19. Linear contraction of a moving body:

      3.8.20. Matter particles and matter field:

      3.8.21. Storing energy in a body:

3.9. Stable photon:

      3.9.1. Energy content in a photon:

3.10. Stability of photon’s speed:

      3.10.1. Photon at higher than critical speed:

      3.10.2. Photon at lesser than critical speed:

3.11. Resultant speed of a photon:

      3.11.1. Frequency shift of light:

      3.11.2. Limit of universe:

      3.11.3. Background radiation:

3.12. Unstable photon:

3.13. Polarity of a photon:

3.14. Matter:

3.15. Energy:

      3.15.1. Work:

      3.15.2. Types of energy:

      3.15.3. Energy of a photon:

3.16. Kinetic energy and rest mass:

Chapter 4. RADIATION

Matter field of a body is the distorted part of 2D energy fields in and about the body limits. Properties of distortions in the matter field determine behavior of light being reflected from or refracted through a body. Matter is radiated in the form of flow of photons and energy is radiated in the form of distortions in the 2D energy fields. Differentiating between these two provides for simple and logical explanations to all phenomena related to light and other forms of radiations. All phenomena of light can be explained by its corpuscle nature. Light has a dual nature and it is no mystery. Relative velocity of light, with respect to a (moving) observer, in any direction in a region of space is constant. Changes in the frequency of light, received from far away bodies, are not caused by the motion of those bodies. Doppler effect is discussed in various conditions to prove that the red shift in radiation frequency from far-away stars is not caused due to the motion of source body but due to their mass.

4.1. Radiation:

      4.1.1. Radiation of matter:

      4.1.2. Radiation of energy:

4.2. Velocity of radiation:

      4.2.1. Light:

      4.2.2. Speed of light:

      4.2.3. Speed of electromagnetic wave:   

4.3. Velocity and time:

4.4. Relative velocity of radiation:

4.5. Velocity of radiation in a medium:

4.6. Matterfield:

      4.6.1. Classification of distortions:

      4.6.2. Normal distortion:

      4.6.3. Parallel distortion:

4.7. Properties of radiation:

4.8. Reflection of light:

4.9. Angle of reflection:

      4.9.1. Difference in rest masses:

      4.9.2. Difference in incident angles:

4.10. Selective reflection:

4.11. Doppler effect:

      4.11.1. Reflection from regressing surface:

      4.11.2. Reflection from approaching surface:

      4.11.3. Radiation from moving source:

      4.11.4. Gravitational attraction on photons:

      4.11.5. Massive bodies:

      4.11.6. Radiation received by moving body:

4.12. Refraction of light:

      4.12.1. Magnitude of refraction:

      4.12.2. Dispersion of composite light:

      4.12.3. Refraction during reflection:

4.13. Selective refraction:

      4.13.1. Total internal reflection:

      4.13.2. Double refraction:

      4.13.3. Double reflection:

4.14. Diffraction of light:

      4.14.1. Wave nature of fundamental particles:

4.15. Interference of light:

4.16. Polarization of light:

Chapter 5. BITON

Independent gravitational actions in many 2D energy fields, together form gravitational actions in 3D space system. Practical gravitational constant in 3D space system is only a very small fraction of its real value. Gravitational force is enormously stronger than other manifestations of forces. Practically, gravitational forces appears to be weak because only a very small number of matter particles in two macro bodies produce apparent gravitational attraction between them, at any instant. Actions of gravitational forces are between each matter body (particle) and surrounding 2D energy fields. This makes the development of apparent attraction due to gravity between two bodies, instantaneous. No transfer of imaginary particles or action at a distance is required to explain the instantaneous development of apparent attraction due to gravity, however far the bodies may be.

Two high-matter content photons (matching in all respects of matter content, phase relation, directions of linear and spin motions), approaching each other, may form a union of a primary particle, biton, under the apparent attraction due to gravity. Photons in a biton move in the same circular path. Since the paths of the photons in a biton are circular, the photons remain permanently unstable. Unstable photons in a biton produce distortion fields about them. Interactions between distortion fields produce field forces by simple mechanical movements of quanta in the 2D energy fields. Relative direction and curvature of distortions in the distortion fields cause attractive or repulsive nature of field forces. Distortion fields, about the bitons, are the basis of all field forces. Alignment of bitons, moving at very high linear speed near the fringes of a galaxy, produce its halo and prevent neighboring galaxies from approaching each other.

Bitons are self-sustaining subatomic matter bodies, which have mass and obey all inertial laws. They, in various combinations, form fundamental particles. External pressure on a biton determines its matter and energy contents. In free space, size, matter content and energy content of all bitons are equal. Higher external pressure reduces both the matter and energy contents and increases the size of bitons. A macro body in free space and in coolest state has highest matter and energy contents and has least volume. Higher external pressure compels a biton to radiate matter and energy into space. Large bodies radiate light and energy under gravitational collapse. No nuclear actions are required for the stars to radiate light or energy. Gravitational collapse of a body determines the physical states of its interior and exterior.

Process of reducing/increasing the matter and energy content of the bitons in a body is the heating/cooling. Reducing the matter and energy content of bitons by increasing the external pressure is the direct method of heating. Reducing the matter and energy content of bitons by an increase in the matter content of a constituent photon of a biton is the indirect method of heating. Cooling is a natural process that cannot be initiated artificially. All bodies tend to revert to their most stable matter and energy content levels (room temperature). Changes in the sizes of constituent bitons change the volume/density of macro bodies. Present methods of temperature measurements of high-pressure regions are incorrect.

5.1. Gravitational force in 3D space:

5.2. Attraction due to gravity in 3D space:

      5.2.1. Push gravity:

      5.2.2. Apparent attraction between macro bodies:

                  Magnitude of apparent attraction:

                  3D system’s gravitational constant in 2D system:

      5.2.3. Practical gravitational constant:

      5.2.4. Action at a distance:

      5.2.5. Screening the gravity:

      5.2.6. Levitation:

      5.2.7. Anomalies in gravitational attraction:

5.3. Attraction between photons:

      5.3.1. Breakdown of inverse square law:

5.4. Attraction between coplanar photons:

5.5. Distortion field of unstable photons:

5.6. Field forces between photons:

5.7. Interaction between photons:

      5.7.1. Motion in linear paths:

                  Photons moving in same direction:

                  Photons moving in opposite directions:

      5.7.2. Motion in curved paths:

                  Photons moving in the same direction:

                  Photons moving in opposite directions:

      5.7.3. Lines of forces:

      5.7.4. Interaction between distortion fields:

                  Two linear distortion fields:

                  Two dissimilar angular distortion fields:

                  Two similar angular distortion fields:

                  Two assorted distortion fields:

5.8. Formation of a biton:

5.9. Binding force of a biton:

5.10. Stable biton:

      5.10.1. Mass gain by one photon:

      5.10.2. Mass loss by one photon:

5.11. Distortion field about a biton:

5.12. Stabilization of a biton:

      5.12.1. Higher matter content of a biton:

      5.12.2. Lower matter content of a biton:

      5.12.3. Ground state of matter:

5.13. Stable biton in free space:

5.14. External pressure on a biton:

5.15. Change of volume of a macro body:

      5.15.1. Internal pressure of a body:

      5.15.2. Radiation from a body:

      5.15.3. Life of a biton:

      5.15.4. Entropy of the universe:

      5.15.5. Room temperature:

      5.15.6. Magnitude of radiation produced:

5.16. Linear motion of a biton:

5.17. Heat rays:

      5.17.1. Direct method of heating:

      5.17.2. Indirect method of heating:

      5.17.3. Energy transfer during heating:

      5.17.4. Radiation during heating:

5.18. Heat:

      5.18.1. Transfer of heat:

      5.18.2. Temperature in high-pressure regions:

      5.18.3. Matter content level and physical state:

      5.18.4. Brownian motion:

      5.18.5. Floating bodies:

      5.18.6. Thermodynamic laws:

5.19. Energy content of a biton:

5.20. Classification of bitons:

Chapter 6. TETRONS

Two complimentary bitons come together under apparent attraction due to gravity and form a union of a tetron. Tetrons are self-sustaining subatomic particle. Under apparent attraction due to gravity, tetrons group together as single layer. At certain size of the layer, it bends on itself to form spherical shell. This spherical shell, made by the tetrons is a neutron. Neutrons have the weakest bonding among the fundamental particles. It is rare for them to exist independently near larger bodies. In a stable neutron, distortion fields of its constituent tetrons neutralize and the neutron exhibits no resultant distortion fields about the union. A neutron may be split into number of fragments under external forces. Each of these fragments, union of number of tetrons, exhibit different strengths and properties of distortion fields. This gives rise to the appearance of numerous constituent particles of a neutron.

6.1. Combination of two bitons:

6.2. Binding force of a tetron:

      6.2.1. Binding forces:

      6.2.2. Stabilizing forces:

      6.2.3. Change in matter content:

      6.2.4. Deflection of a biton:

      6.2.5. Sustenance of stability:

6.3. Mass and weight of a tetron:

6.4. Interaction between tetrons:

      6.4.1. Layer formation by the tetrons:

      6.4.2. Alignment between photons:

6.5. Formation of a neutron:

      6.5.1. Binding force of a neutron-shell:

6.6. Properties of neutrons:

      6.6.1. Splitting a neutron:

      6.6.2. Energy content of a neutron:

Chapter 7. ELECTROMAGNETIC FORCE

Field forces are produced by simple mechanical motions of quanta of matter in the latticework structures of 2D energy fields during the interaction between two or more distortion fields. Direction of distortions in a distortion field may be indicated by lines of forces. Action of field force is manifested by the inertial actions on the participating bodies. Direction of inertial action is taken as the direction of field force. Field forces can be resolved into electric, magnetic and nuclear forces. Linear distortion fields produce magnetic nature of forces, angular distortion fields produce electric nature of field forces and radial nature of distortions produce nuclear nature of forces. Different natures of the field forces are exhibited by resultant distortion fields formed by combination of distortion fields of the bitons, in different planes.

Bitons produce the primary electric fields. Arranging number of primary electric fields in proper array produces a magnetic field. Electric and magnetic fields are complimentary to each other. Direction of electric field is indicated by its electric charge. Direction of a magnetic field is indicated by its magnetic pole. Strength and nature of field forces depend on the direction and distance between interacting distortion fields. Electric fields produce no field force when the distance between them is equal to the zilch force distance. Direction of (electric) field force reverses on either side of zilch force distance. Phenomenon of zilch force distance produce anomalies in the present equations for field forces.

7.1. Resolution of field force:

      7.1.1. Mechanism of the field forces:

      7.1.2. 3D nature of the field forces:

      7.1.3. Components of field forces:

      7.1.4. Nature of resolved components:

7.2. Primary electric field:

7.3. Magnetic field:

      7.3.1. Magnet:

7.4. Electric field:

      7.4.1. Axes of electric and magnetic fields:

      7.4.2. Electric charge:

7.5. Interaction between magnetic fields;

7.6. Interaction between electric fields:

7.7. Split distortion fields:

7.8. Strength of field forces:

Chapter 8. HEXTONS

Three complementary bitons, under apparent gravitational attraction, form a union of hexton. Hexton is a self-sustaining subatomic particle. It has mass and obeys all inertial laws. There are two types of hextons: Positrons and electrons. Resultant distortion field of a hexton may be resolved into three components, the magnetic field, the electric field and the nuclear field. Positrons have dominating north magnetic polarity. Electrons have dominating south magnetic polarity. Electric fields of a positron and an electron are similar. They have the similar electric charges. Positrons have attractive nuclear fields. Electrons have repulsive nuclear fields. Hextons apparently interact with other particles by the interaction between their distortion fields. By the repulsive nature of their nuclear fields, the electrons repel all other matter particles. Hence, the electrons remain lonely throughout their lives. By the attractive nature of their nuclear fields, the positrons apparently attract all other particles, including other positrons.

If the photons of two interfering matter particles are in opposite directions of motion, the matter particles tend to annihilate each other. During annihilation of matter bodies, constituent quanta of matter in them are reverted to the 2D energy fields and the energy content about the bodies are disbursed in to the 2D energy fields. Tetrons attracted towards a positron form two layers about positron’s equator. As the size of the layers grow, each of them, bends on its self to form a tetron-shell, on either side of the positron’s equator. This union of tetrons and a positron is a deuteron. Deuterons are major constituents of nuclei of atoms. Positrons of two deuterons, forming a union, are kept away from each other by their tetron-shells. A tetron-shell, with a positron as its constituent, is a proton. Protons are usually created by pair production in inter galactic space. There are very few protons in the atoms around us.

8.1. Formation of hexton:

8.2. Hexton:

      8.2.1. Changes in matter content:

      8.2.2. Deflection of a biton:

      8.2.3. Classification of hextons:

      8.2.4. Distortion fields of hextons:

8.3. Distortion fields of a positron:

8.4. Distortion fields of an electron:

8.5. Nuclear field:

      8.5.1. Interaction between nuclear fields:

      8.5.2. Strength of nuclear fields:

8.6. Energy content of a hexton:

8.7. Interaction between two electrons:

8.8. Interaction between electron and tetron:

8.9. Interaction between electron and positron:

      8.9.1. Annihilation of matter:

8.10. Interaction between two positrons:

8.11. Interaction between positron and tetron:

8.12. Proton:

8.13. Deuteron:

8.14. Interaction between two deuterons:

Chapter 9. ATOMS

Deuterons in various combinations form sections of nuclei of atoms. Binding and stabilizing forces are provided by the interactions between the distortion fields of the constituent particles and the apparent attraction due to gravity. Stability of spinning nucleus is the sole criteria for formation of a nucleus by available deuterons. Due to their scarcity, protons are rarely included in the nuclear sections of atoms, larger than Hydrogen. Each of the nuclear section exhibits resultant distortion fields. Depending on the mutual apparent interactive forces, nuclear sections join about a common axis to produce the nucleus of an atom. Depending on the number of nuclear sections and their girth, the nucleus (and the atom) has an oblong spherical (tubular) appearance of unequal girth. Occasional presence of neutrons in the nuclei acts as counterweights or spacers. Neutrons, trapped with deuterons in a nucleus and not used for nucleus’ stability, cause high frequency radiation from the nuclei. Electrons move around the nuclei in planetary orbits. In stable condition, central force is provided by apparent gravitational attraction only. Approaching electrons spin the nuclei about the nuclear axis.

9.1. Atoms of elements:

9.2. Nucleus of an atom:

9.3. Bonds between deuterons:

      Parallel bond:

      Series bond:

      Mixed bond:

9.4. Development of a nucleus:

9.5. Axial arrangement of deuterons:

9.6. Circular arrangement of deuterons:

9.7. Mixed arrangement of deuterons:

9.8. Formation of Nucleus:

9.9. Formation of an atom:

   9.10. Nuclear spin:

      9.10.1. Electron moving along the line of sight:

      9.10.2. Electron moving in other directions:

      9.10.3. Direction of spin:

      9.10.4. Secondary electric field:

9.11. Orbits of electrons:

9.12. Energy content of an atom:

9.13. Atoms and molecules:

      9.13.1. Forming the molecules:

      9.13.2. Characteristic properties of elements:

      9.13.3. Chemical interactions:

      9.13.4. Disintegration of atoms:

      9.13.5. Pair production:

Chapter 10. ELECTRICITY

There are no unnatural motions (flow or transfer) of electrons along a conductor during an electric current. Establishment of electric field along every point in a conductor is an electric current. Deflection between atomic axis of an atom and nuclear axes (of own or neighbors’) produce the electric fields about the conductor. Deflection of atomic axis from its natural alignment, within a macro body, is the electric potential. Electric generation and electric induction are different phenomena. Photoelectric effect is the combined effects of absorption of matter content by atoms and the electric capacitance.

10.1. Application of this concept:

10.2. Motoring action:

      10.2.1. Strength of motoring force:

      10.2.2. Electric field in a magnetic gradient:

10.3. Electric generation:

      10.3.1. Nature of electric current:

10.4. Atomic section in a magnetic field:

      10.4.1. Electric field about atomic section:

      10.4.2. Atomic section moving in a magnetic field:

10.5. Atom in a magnetic field;

      10.5.1. Electric induction:

10.6. Electric potential:

      10.6.1. Field forces on an atom:

      10.6.2. Electric potential in a conductor:

      10.6.3. Electric potential due to generation:

      10.6.4. Electric potential due to induction:

      10.6.5. Direction of electric potential:

      10.6.6. Spread of electric potential:

10.7. Electric current:

      10.7.1. Production of electric current:

      10.7.2. Electric current in a conductor:

10.8. Electric capacitance:

10.9. Electrostatic field;

      10.9.1. Foreign body in a capacitor:

                  Split distortion fields in electrostatic field:

      10.9.2. Hexton in an electrostatic field:

      10.9.3. Larger body in an electrostatic field:

10.10. Static electricity:

      10.10.1. Methods to develop electric potential:

      10.10.2. Static electricity:

10.11. Electric resistance:

      10.11.1. Effect of heat on resistance:

      10.11.2. Thermal effect of an electric current:

10.12. Contact potential:

      10.12.1. Electrolysis:

10.13. Electromagnetic waves:

      10.13.1. Photon and electromagnetic wave:

10.14. Photo-electricity:

      10.14.1. Photoelectric materials:

      10.14.2. Photoelectric effect:

10.15. Electric discharge:

      10.15.1. Electric arc:

      10.15.2. Dielectric constant:

      10.15.3. Glow discharge:

      10.15.4. Corona discharge:

Chapter 11. GENERAL

Chapter 11, deals with topics of general nature, touching up on more than one phenomenon covered in other chapters. Brief explanations on few topics are provided to show that how this concept interprets them to reach better and logical conclusions, compared to current understanding. Time is a functional entity and it cannot be regarded as a fundamental dimension. Physical state of a macro body is determined by the distance between its constituent atoms. On a large scale the universe is perpetual and is of steady state. Galaxies keep away from each other by the electromagnetic action between their halos. No free body can orbit around another moving body. All planets in a solar system have to come from outside the solar system. Part of the central force between a central body and its planet produce their spin motions. An external force or torque on a spinning body produce tide on it. Production of tide does not require any work or energy. Orbital motion of a planet and its spin motion determines the deflection of tides from local meridian. Free atoms in the sea water produce terrestrial magnetism. Brief description on structures and properties of atoms of the first four elements (H, He, Li and Be) are given to show how this concept can account for unique properties of each element.

11.1. Time:

11.2. Physical states of matter:

      11.2.1. Solid state of matter:

      11.2.2. Liquid state of matter:

      11.2.3. Gaseous state of matter:

      11.2.4. Plasma state of matter:

11.3. Latent stages:

11.4. Evaporation:

      11.4.1. External pressure on a body:

      11.4.2. Evaporation:

      11.4.3. Condensation:

      11.4.4. Boiling:

11.5. Emission spectra:

11.6. Fluorescence:

                  Phosphorescence:

11.7. Friction:

11.8. Evolution of universe:

      11.8.1. Inter-galactic cloud:

      11.8.2. Satellites:

      11.8.3. Planets:

      11.8.4. Stars:

      11.8.5. Black Holes:

      11.8.6. Galaxy:

                  Repulsion between Galaxies:

11.9. Planetary orbits:

      11.9.1. Circular orbit:

      11.9.2. Elliptical orbit:

                  Limits of angular speeds at the point of entry:

                  Orbits about a moving central body:

      11.9.3. Anomalies in planetary orbits:

                  Apparent loss of orbital motion of a planet:

                  Precession due to eccentricity:

                  Precession due to curvature of central body’s path:

                  Perturbations caused by collisions:

      11.9.4. Electronic orbits:

11.10. Terrestrial spin:

      11.10.1. Spin due to central force:

      11.10.2. Unequal spin motion of a planetary body:

      11.10.3. Apparent spin motion:

      11.10.4. Anomalies:

      11.10.5. Variations in the length of solar day:

11.11. Tides:

      11.11.1. Terrestrial tides:

      11.11.2.  Direction of tides:

                  Magnitude of angular shift from local meridian:

                  Direction of angular shift from local meridian:

                  Apparent direction of Solar tides:

                  Apparent direction of lunar tides:

                  Effect of orbital motion on deflections of tides:

11.12. Terrestrial magnetism:

11.13. Elements of matter:

      11.13.1. Hydrogen:

                  Ions:

                  Formation of a molecule:

                  Splitting of a molecule:

                  Deuterium and tritium:

      11.13.2. Helium:

      11.13.3. Lithium:

      11.13.4. Beryllium:

11.14. Permanent magnet:

INDEX

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